This
page contains descriptions of some of the terms used in this website.
Click on a term to view its description, or browse freely through the
list below.
Anger
management
refers to a set of techniques or exercises that can control or reduce
feelings of anger in an individual. Commons techniques include deep
breathing, meditation, relaxation training, combatting trigger
thoughts, controlling stress, stopping escalation, healthy self-talk,
problem-solving communication, and response choice rehearsal.
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Anxiety is a complex
combination of the feeling of fear, apprehension and worry often
accompanied by physical sensations such as palpitations, chest pain
and/or shortness of breath. It may exist as a primary disorder or may
be associated with other medical problems including other psychiatric
disorders. A chronically recurring case of anxiety that has a serious
affect on your life may be clinically diagnosed as an anxiety disorder.
The most common are Generalized
anxiety disorder, Panic
disorder, Social
anxiety disorder, Phobias,
Obsessive-compulsive
disorder OCD), and Post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD).
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Attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most
commonly diagnosed and controversial mental disorders among children,
and is increasingly recognized as afflicting adults as well. In
children, the disorder is characterized by inattentiveness, impulsive
behavior and restlessness. All of these symptoms may be present, or
some of them may be lacking depending on the type of ADHD. Children
with the inattentive type are actually often sluggish and hypo-active,
contrary to popular notions about ADHD. In adults, the main problem is
often their inability to structure their lives and plan simple daily
tasks. Thus inattentiveness and restlessness often become secondary
problems. According to sources such as the Centers for Disease Control
(CDC) the causes are currently unknown, and it is thought that the term
covers a variety of related disorders. There is no single medical test
that can accurately diagnose ADHD, though there are useful assessment
tools.
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Bariatric Roux-en-Y
surgery, or simply gastric bypass surgery, is a procedure used almost
exclusively in surgical weight-loss applications to correct morbid
obesity. Usually more than 100 pounds overweight, patients who are
morbidly obese have major health problems related to their weight. The
Body Mass Index BMI is typically used to identify surgery candidates
with a cut-off of 40 being used by most surgeons. BMIs down to 35 are
typically permitted if the individual has other serious health issues.
Gastric bypass surgery involves stomach stapling to reduce the stomach
to a "pouch" of 30-60 mL (1-2 fl. oz.) in capacity and connecting this
pouch at a point midway along the small intestine. The larger portion
of the stomach is left in the body and is connected to the small
intestine further down, in order to allow the introduction of gastric
juices that are essential for digestion. Gastric bypass surgery has two
main results: the tiny stomach pouch means that the patient is able to
eat only very small portions of food at a time, drastically reducing
intake of calories, and the shortened digestive tract prevents those
calories from being fully absorbed. This is why Gastric Bypass surgery
is classified as both a restrictive (reducing intake) and malabsorptive
(reducing absorption) procedure. Gastric bypass is overwhelmingly
successful, with many patients losing over 100 pounds within the first
18 months following surgery. Gastric bypass surgery should always be
accompanied by an exercise regimen, and requires patients to commit to
a new lifestyle.
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Clinical Psychologist
is a mental health professional who has earned a doctoral degree in
psychology (either a Ph.D., Ed.D, or a Psy.D. - Doctor of Psychology)
and has received extensive clinical training. A Clinical Psychologist
is trained in research, assessment, and the application of different
psychological therapies. Clinical psychologists are concerned with the
study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental and emotional
disorders and disabilities.
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Cognitive-behavioral
therapy is a kind of psychotherapy used to treat
depression, anxiety disorders, phobias, and other forms of
psychological disorders. It is a form of psychotherapy that emphasizes
the important role of thinking in how we feel and what we do.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy is based on the scientific fact that our
thoughts cause our feelings and behaviors, not external things, like
people, situations, and events. The benefit of this fact is that we can
change the way we think to feel/act better even if the situation does
not change.
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Compulsions refer to
actions that the person performs, usually repeatedly, in an attempt to
relieve the tension associated with an obsession. For an OCD sufferer
who obsesses about germs or contamination, for example, these
compulsions often involve repeated cleansing or meticulous avoidance of
trash and mess. Most of the time the actions become so regular that it
is not a noticeable problem. Common compulsions include excessive
washing and cleaning; checking; hoarding; repetitive actions such as
touching, counting, arranging and ordering; and other ritualistic
behaviors that the person feels will lessen the chances of provoking an
obsession. Compulsions can be observable -- washing, for instance --
but they can also be mental rituals such as repeating words or phrases,
or counting.
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Coping skills training
is a broad term encompassing a wide range of cognitive-behavioral
strategies that help a person deal effectively with stress, emotions,
interpersonal relationships, and self-image concerns. Examples of
coping skills training include assertiveness training, time management,
communication skills, conflict resolution skills, social skills,
general problem-solving skills, anger management, job stress
management, relaxation and stress management training, parent
effectiveness training, and dialectical behavior therapy.
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Depression, or major
depression is a syndrome of interlocking symptoms that last two weeks
or more, and that are so severe that they interfere with daily living.
The symptoms include either feelings of overwhelming sadness or a
significantly decreased interest in pleasurable activities, plus at
least four of the following: Changing appetite and marked weight gain
or weight loss; Disturbed sleep patterns, either insomnia or sleeping
more than normal; Changes in activity levels, restless or moving
significantly slower than normal; Fatigue, both mental and physical;
Feelings of guilt, helplessness, worthlessness, or hopelessness;
Decreased ability to concentrate or make decisions; Thinking about
death or suicide. Depression in children is not as obvious as it is in
adults; Symptoms children demonstrate include: Loss of appetite; Sleep
problems such as nightmares; Problems with behavior or grades at school
where none existed before; Significant behavioral changes; becoming
withdrawn, sulky, or aggressive.
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Executive
functions
refer to a constellation of several complex, inter-related, mental
operations or constructs involved in giving organization and order to
our actions and behavior. Much of the interest in measuring executive
functions comes from attempts to apply these constructs to a variety of
developmental disorders, such as ADHD, learning disabilities, and
certain other conditions such as OCD and and Bipolar Disorder, to name
but some of the conditions. There seems to be a consensus that
executive functions involve various
aspects of attention, working memory, planning, problem solving,
response inhibition, self-monitoring and regulation, cognitive
flexibility, and the maintenance of mental sets. Many
individually-administered, standardized, norm-based tests can be used
to tap into these mental operations and measure various aspects of
attention, working memory, and key executive functions and processes.
These tests examine different functions, abilities, skills, or
combinations thereof; and allow the examiner to identify significant
strengths and weaknesses among an individual's cognitive abilities.
Testing is usually combined with a thorough history taking and clinical
interview with the client and his/her significant others to put the
results into context and make them more meaningful. Based on the
findings of such an evaluation, specific recommendations can be offered
regarding a range of helpful tips and strategies for addressing some of
the deficits identified.
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Generalized anxiety
disorder is a common chronic disorder that affects
twice as many women as men and leads to considerable impairment . As
the name implies, generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by
long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any particular object or
situation. People with this disorder fret constantly and have a hard
time controlling their worries. Because of persistent muscle tension
and autonomic fear reactions, they may develop headaches, heart
palpitations, dizziness, and insomnia. These physical complaints,
combined with the intense, long term anxiety, make it difficult to cope
with normal daily activities.
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Learning disorder,
in broad terms, covers any of a range of conditions that affect a
person's ability to learn new information. Learning disorders occur in
three major categories: reading, mathematics, and written expression.
Reading problems generally can be detected by the age of 7, and
problems with spelling and written language by the age of 8.
Mathematical learning disorders often are not detected until after rote
memorization mathematics work has been completed, and the application
of more abstract skills is necessary. Learning disorders are often
identified when standardized testing in the particular area yields
results that are significantly below what is expected given a person's
chronological age, IQ, and educational level.
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Neuropsychological
assessment involves the measurement of cognition
and behavior to examine the effects of any brain injury or
neuropathological process that a person may have experienced. A core
part of neuropsychological assessment is the administration of
neuropsychological tests for the formal assessment of cognitive
functioning. Aspects of cognitive functioning that are assessed
typically include orientation, new learning, memory, intelligence,
language, visuo-perception, executive control, and self-awareness.
Three broad goals of neuropsychological assessment include: Determining
the nature of the underlying problem; Understanding the impact of the
problem on the individual as a means of devising a rehabilitation
program or offering advice as to an individual's ability to carry out a
certain tasks (for example, fitness to drive, or returning to work);
and Measuring changes in functioning over time to determine the outcome
of a surgical procedure or the impact of a rehabilitation program over
time.
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Obsessions are
thoughts and ideas that the sufferer cannot stop thinking about. Common
OCD obsessions include fears of acquiring disease, getting hurt or
causing harm to someone. Obsessions are typically automatic, frequent,
distressing, and difficult to control or put an end to by themselves. A
sufferer will almost always obsess over something which he or she is
most afraid of. People with OCD who suffer over hurting themselves or
others are actually less likely to do so than the average person.
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Obsessive-compulsive
disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder. OCD is
manifested in a variety of forms, but is most commonly characterized by
a subject's obsessive drive to perform a particular task or set of
tasks, compulsions commonly termed rituals. The typical OCD sufferer
performs tasks (or compulsions)
to seek relief from obsessions.
To others, these tasks may appear simple and unnecessary. But for the
sufferer, such tasks can feel critically important, and must be
performed in particular ways out of a fear of dire consequences and to
stop the stress build up. Examples of these tasks include repeatedly
checking that one's parked car has been locked before leaving it,
turning lights on and off a set number of times before exiting a room,
and repeatedly washing hands at regular intervals throughout the day.
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Panic disorder
involves brief attacks of intense terror and apprehension that cause
trembling and shaking, dizziness, and difficulty breathing. One who is
often plagued by sudden bouts of intense anxiety might be said to be
afflicted by this disorder. Although panic attacks sometimes seem to
occur out of nowhere, they generally happen after frightening
experiences, prolonged stress, or even exercise. Many people who have
panic attacks interpret them correctly--as a result of a passing crisis
or stress. Unfortunately, others begin to worry excessively and some
may even quit jobs or refuse to leave home to avoid future attacks. It
is labeled panic disorder when several apparently spontaneous attacks
lead to a persistent concern about future attacks. A common
complication of panic disorder is agoraphobia--anxiety about being in a
place or situation where escape is difficult or embarrassing.
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Phobia is a strong,
irrational fear and avoidance of an object or situation. The person
knows the fear is irrational, yet the anxiety remains. Phobic disorders
differ from generalized anxiety disorders and panic disorders because
there is a specific stimulus or situation that elicits a strong fear
response. People with phobias have especially powerful imaginations,
and they vividly anticipate terrifying consequences from encountering
such feared objects as knives, bridges, blood, enclosed places, or
certain animals. These individuals recognize that their fears are
excessive and unreasonable, but are generally unable to control their
anxiety. Individuals with social phobia experience intense fear of
being negatively evaluated by others or of being publicly embarrassed
because of impulsive acts. Almost everyone experiences "stage fright"
when speaking or performing in front of a group; But people with social
phobias become so anxious that performance is out of the question. In
fact, their fear of public scrutiny and potential humiliaton becomes so
pervasive that normal life is impossible.
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Post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) , is a term for the
psychological consequences of exposure to or confrontation with
stressful experiences, which involve actual or threatened death,
serious physical injury or a threat to physical integrity and which the
person found highly traumatic. Symptoms can include reexperiencing
phenomena through nightmares and flashbacks, avoidance of reminders and
emotional detachment, hyperarousal with sleep abnormalities, extreme
distress resulting from personal "triggers", irritability and excessive
startle. There is also the possibility of simultaneous suffering of
other psychiatric disorders. Experiences likely to induce the condition
include rape, combat exposure, natural catastrophes, violent attacks,
and childhood physical/emotional abuse. PTSD often becomes a chronic
condition but can improve with treatment or even spontaneously.
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Psychological testing
is an assessment technique in which a person is presented with a series
of stimuli to which he or she is asked to respond. This is part of an
evaluation of an individual's functioning aimed at establishing a
psychological diagnosis. Intelligence and academic achievement tests
are the most familiar norm-referenced tests for most people. In either
of these types of tests, a series of tasks is presented to the person
being evaluated, and the person's responses are graded according to
carefully prescribed guidelines. After the test is completed, the
results can be compiled and compared to the responses of a norm group
usually composed of people at the same age or grade level as the person
being evaluated. Educational testing is part of an objective
examination that measures educationally relevant skills or knowledge
about such subjects as reading, spelling, or mathematics. It is often
used in conjunction with intellectual or ability testing to evaluate
persons suspected of having a learning disability. Personality testing
helps identify personal, social, and behavioral problems in youth and
adults for the purpose of problem identification, diagnosis, and
treatment planning for an individual.
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Psychological
testing
for ADHD generally consists of obtaining multiple
types of assessments. These usually include a clinical interview
reviewing the diagnostic criteria for ADHD. The interview also needs to
rule out as much as possible other types of syndromes that can cause
attention problems, such as depression, anxiety, and psychosis. Rating
scales can be administered which provide measurement of the person's
own view of their symptoms, as well as the views of parents, teachers,
and significant others. Finally, computerized tests of attention can be
helpful in providing a further independent assessment. These different
assessments may not be in total agreement but provide a well-rounded
view of the person's difficulties. Many doctors use psychological
testing in order to make the diagnosis of ADHD and avoid over-diagnosis
and treatment.
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Psychotherapy
is
the process by which one receives assistance in understanding and
resolving problems which may be contributing to depression and other
conditions. Psychologists and other mental health professionals can
help a person make changes in thinking patterns, deal with relationship
issues, detect and deal with relapses, and understand the factors that
contribute to depression and other conditions. There are many
therapeutic approaches, but all are aimed at improving an individual's
personal and interpersonal functioning. Cognitive therapy focuses on
how people think about themselves and their relationship to the world.
It works to counteract negative thought patterns and enhance
self-esteem. Therapy can be used to help a person develop or improve
interpersonal skills in order to allow them to communicate more
effectively and reduce stress. Behavioral therapy is based on the
assumption that behaviors are learned. This type of therapy attempts to
teach individuals new and healthier types of behaviors. Supportive
therapy encourages people to discuss their problems and provides them
with emotional support. The focus is on sharing information, ideas, and
strategies for coping with daily life. Family systems therapy helps
people live together more harmoniously and undo patterns of destructive
behavior.
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Stress
is a person's
physiological response to an external stimulus that triggers the
"fight-or-flight" reaction - the brain's most basic reaction to fear.
Many things can trigger the stress reaction, including danger, threat,
news, illness, as well as significant changes in one's life such as the
death of a loved one. During the 'fight or flight' or 'stress'
response, the hormone adrenaline is released into the body, blood
vessels in the digestive system close, the heart pace quickens, blood
pressure rises, and the brain focuses on the danger but cannot
concentrate fully on more complex thought. This stress response is very
useful in moments of actual physical danger but long-term stress
responses can lead to ill health, lack of concentration, fatigue, and
other difficulties.
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Stress
management
is a cognitive-behavioral approach that teaches people to handle
stressful situations by understanding their own stressors and
developing effective coping skills for dealing with psychological
stress. Techniques of stress management include relaxation skills
training -- breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, imagery
techniques -- problem-solving skills training, time management,
assertiveness training, conflict resolution and social skills training,
cognitive restructuring, exercise, and nutrition.
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